ERIC Identifier: ED442147
Publication Date: 2000-07-00
Author: Abdullah, Mardziah Hayati
Source: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading English and
Communication Bloomington IN.
Media Literacy. ERIC Digest D152.
THIS DIGEST WAS CREATED BY ERIC, THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER. FOR MORE INFORMATION ABOUT ERIC, CONTACT ACCESS ERIC 1-800-LET-ERIC
Children today are growing up in what O'Sullivan, Dutton and
Rayner (1998) call a "media saturated" world, in which mass media,
including the Internet, have a commanding presence in daily life.
Media messages exert such powerful "social, emotional and
intellectual influences" (Hepburn, 1999) that it is important to
develop a society which understands how media can both serve and
deceive. It is thus imperative for educators to teach what
Megee (1997) calls "the new basic"- media literacy - so that
learners can be producers of effective media messages as well
as "critical consumers of ideas and information" (Rafferty,
1999).
WHAT IS MEDIA LITERACY?
Based on definitions provided by
conferees at the Annenberg School for Communication (cited in Megee,
1997) and by the Canadian Ministry of Education, media literacy (ML)
may be thought of as the ability to critically understand, question
and evaluate how media work and produce meaning, how they are
organized, how they mediate and construct reality, and how they
impact our lives. ML may include the ability to create media
products. Fulton (1998) discusses technology-related competencies
and curriculum standards defined by various states that may be
applied to ML education. Among the six "essential learnings"
Illinois desires for its students are the ability to seek and
navigate information, to communicate effectively using appropriate
technology, and to be responsible citizens in a technological age.
Thus, in addition to teaching the technical aspects of handling
various media equipment, ML is concerned with helping learners
become informed users of media messages.
UNDERSTANDING MEDIA
MESSAGES
Most people involved in ML share the premise that media
are used for specific purposes, including commercial concerns. Media
messages thus embody values and ideologies (Hoffmann and Johnson,
1998), and although media texts are theoretically polysemic (open to
various interpretations), producers employ various techniques or
codes to draw audiences to the preferred meanings of
texts (O'Sullivan, et al., 1998). For example, product comparisons
are commonly used to persuade consumers that one brand of product is
superior to another. McMahon and Quinn (in O'Sullivan, et al.)
identify three categories of codes that may be used to convey
meanings in media messages: technical codes, which include camera
techniques, framing, depth of field, lighting and exposure and
juxtaposition; symbolic codes, which refer to objects, setting, body
language, clothing and color; and written codes in the form of
headlines, captions, speech bubbles and language style. For
instance, a journalist aiming at readers' sympathy for an imprisoned
political activist may choose to publish a photograph of the
activist, crouched behind bars, next to a picture of a caged
animal (making use of body language, setting, and juxtaposition) and
anchor the picture to a caption that reads "CAGED!" Helping learners
understand how codes are used to create desired effects is an
essential component of ML education.
IDENTIFYING STEREOTYPES AND
BIASES
Media representation of reality may "inform, reinforce or
challenge" stereotypes and biases that exist in society. For
instance, the image of the dumb blonde (associated with
characteristics such as seductive behavior, strong make-up, sexy
dresses, naivety, giggling, and illogical thinking) has been
propagated through movies, and although women are increasingly being
featured as tough, independent individuals, commercials still tend
to portray female characters in decorative and domestic
roles (O'Sullivan, et al., 1998). ML education thus needs to help
learners explore the extent to which media help
construct "artificial definitions of masculinity and
femininity" (Graydon, 1997). Racial stereotypes pose another
challenge. Racism is often masked, such as in television programs
that feature ethnic minority characters in solely humorous or exotic
roles, in commercials that sell skin-whitening beauty products, and
in the frequent portrayal of minority groups as social
problems (O'Sullivan, et al., 1998). READING BEYOND
REALISM
Media mediate reality via the use of recognized codes and
conventions, and the credibility or realism of a media text may be
judged by the degree to which the audience identifies with what is
being portrayed. For example, appropriate setting, clothes and props
determine the surface realism of a drama, while credible acting adds
to its plausibility, and suitable music enhances the mood. However,
what is 'real' is culturally situated and subjective (O'Sullivan, et
al., 1998). Crowds at a soccer match may thus appear either rowdy
and unruly or excited and ardent, depending on the narration and the
visual evidence presented. Mediated reality can therefore be
controversial. Nevertheless, O'Sullivan, et al. note that audiences
generally accord a great degree of credibility to broadcast news and
documentaries, perceiving the reporting to be objective and
accurate. Documentaries, in particular, are considered reliable
because of visual evidence, location shots, the fly-on-the-wall
approach (recording the reality of everyday life without structured
direction), interviews with experts and ordinary people,
and "seamless editing." In reality, however, these techniques
disguise values and ideologies that determine the editorial choices
involved in the making of these media messages, and ML education
needs to sensitize learners to the underlying intentions of
producers. UNDERSTANDING AUDIENCES
ML is also concerned with
teaching learners how media cater to different audiences.
Understanding audience needs helps producers decide on the content
and delivery of messages. Blumler and Katz, in their 1974
study (cited in O'Sullivan, et al., 1998), found that watching
television fulfilled four needs: it was a form of escapism or
diversion from everyday pressures, a basis for socializing with
other viewers, a channel for exploring personal problems by
identifying with certain characters, and a source of information
about real-world events. This list - which should include
educational needs that are relevant to today's society - is useful
for thinking about audiences of other media forms as well. Writing
articles for newspapers and magazines also requires a sense of who
the readers will be. For example, the headlines and first paragraph
of a news article have to contain information about the what, when,
where, who, and how of an event to provide the gist of a story for
busy readers POSSIBLE LEARNING ACTIVITIES
ML involves
interpreting media messages (creating personal meaning from codes
and conventions) as well as thinking critically about
then (Rafferty, 1999). Thus, an infusion approach, which immerses
teaching critical thinking within teaching the content knowledge of
ML (Feuerstein, 1999), may be useful. Thoman (1999) identifies five
critical-thinking questions that learners can ask specifically about
media messages: * Who created this message and why?
* What
techniques are used to hold my attention?
* What lifestyles,
values and points of view are represented?
* How might different
people interpret this message?
* What is omitted from this
message?
Learners can conduct interviews and short surveys to
obtain information on audience needs and preferences. In addition,
Hepburn (1999) suggests getting learners to keep personal logs about
programs that appeal to specific age groups, and to study prime
viewing times and media ratings (using resources such as the Nielsen
report on television viewers).
To further develop critical
awareness, learners can be asked to practice distinguishing fact
from fiction in selected television shows, and to review
advertisements found in various media forms, as suggested by
Hepburn. Graydon (1997) encourages learners to study the portrayal
of images, such as male-female images, by physically imitating the
ways in which men and women are positioned in fashion features,
describing how the poses make them feel, and noting consistent
differences. O'Sullivan, et al. (1998) advocates student research on
the same subject, such as studying the proportion of men and women
appearing in commercials and the roles they portray.
The more
learners are involved in ML activities, the more likely they are to
become informed and empowered users and consumers of media. The
following Web sites provide further information on Media
Literacy:
The Center for Media
Literacy
http://www.medialit.org
The Media Literacy Online
Project
http://interact.uoregon.edu/MediaLit/HomePage
Media
Awareness
Network
http://www.media-awareness.ca/eng/
REFERENCES
Feuerstein, M. (1999). Media literacy in support of
critical thinking. In Journal of Education Media, 24 (1), 43-55. [EJ
588 243] Fulton, K. (1998). Learning in a digital age: Insights
into the issues. In T.H.E. Journal, 25 (7), 60-63. [EJ 561
440]
Graydon, S. (1997). Overcoming impossible bodies: Using media
literacy to challenge popular culture. In Emergency Librarian,
24 (3)15-18. [EJ 538 038]
Hepburn, M. A. (1999). Media literacy: A
must for middle school social studies. In Clearing House, 72 (6),
352-357. [EJ 587 385]
Megee, M. (1997). Media literacy: The new
basic. In Emergency Librarian, 25 (2), 23-26. [EJ 558
513]
O'Sullivan, T., Dutton, B., & Rayner, P. (1998). Studying the
media. 2nd ed. London: Arnold.
Rafferty, C.D. (1999). Literacy in
the information age. In Education Leadership, 57 (2),
22-26.
Thoman, E. (1999). Skills and strategies for media
education. In Educational Leadership, 56 (5), 50-54. [EJ 581
520]
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Digest #152 is EDO-CS-00-03 and was published in July
2000 by the ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading, English and
Communication, 2805 E 10th Street, Bloomington, IN 47408-2698,
Telephone (812) 855-5847 or (800) 759-4723. ERIC Digests are in the
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This project has been funded at least
in part with Federal funds from the U.S. Department of Education
under contract number ED-99-CO-0028. The content of this publication
does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the U.S.
Department of Education nor does mention of trade names, commercial
products, or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.
Title: Media Literacy. ERIC Digest D152.
Document Type: Information Analyses---ERIC Information Analysis Products (IAPs) (071); Information Analyses---ERIC Digests (Selected) in Full Text (073);
Available From: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading, English, and Communication, Indiana
University, 2805 E. 10th Street, Suite 140, Bloomington, IN
47408-2698. Tel: 800-759-4723 (Toll Free); Web site:
http://eric.indiana.edu/.
Descriptors: Audience Awareness, Class Activities, Elementary Secondary
Education, Mass Media, Mass Media Effects, Mass Media Role,
Social Bias, Stereotypes
Identifiers: ERIC Digests, Media Literacy
###
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